Theory

Capital Volume II: The Process of Circulation of Capital (1885) – Marx and Engels (Summary)

Karl Marx’s Capital Volume II: The Process of Circulation of Capital (1885), edited posthumously by Friedrich Engels, shifts focus from the production of surplus value to the realization of value through the circulation of capital. This volume examines how capital moves through its cyclical metamorphoses—money, productive, and commodity forms—while addressing the systemic contradictions that threaten capitalist reproduction. Though often

Capital (Das Kapital): A Critique of Political Economy – Karl Marx (Detailed Summary)

Karl Marx’s Capital: A Critique of Political Economy stands as one of the most influential and incisive analyses of capitalism ever written. Composed over decades and published in three volumes (with two edited posthumously by Friedrich Engels), the work dismantles the economic, social, and philosophical foundations of capitalist society. Marx’s aim was not merely to critique classical

Capital Volume I: The Process of Production of Capital (1867) – Karl Marx (Summary)

Karl Marx’s Capital Volume I: The Process of Production of Capital (1867) is a monumental work that systematically dismantles the capitalist mode of production by exposing its economic foundations, social contradictions, and historical specificity. Through a dialectical materialist framework, Marx analyzes how capitalism transforms labor into a commodity, extracts surplus value from workers, and perpetuates exploitation through

Social Darwinism

Social Darwinism: A Sociological Perspective by Herbert Spencer

Introduction Social Darwinism emerged as a sociological and political ideology in the late 19th century, drawing heavily from the evolutionary theories of Charles Darwin, particularly his ideas about natural selection. While Darwin’s biological theories focused on the natural world, Social Darwinism applied evolutionary principles to human societies, economies, and politics. The Industrial Revolution and the

The Andaman Islanders

A.R. Redcliffe-Brown – The Andaman Islanders (Detailed Summary)

Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown’s The Andaman Islanders: A Study in Social Anthropology (1922) represents a transformative milestone in the field of anthropology, heralding the emergence of structural-functionalism as a dominant theoretical framework. This work was not just an ethnographic account of the Andamanese people but a bold reimagining of how societies could be understood—as cohesive systems

Argonauts of the Western Pacific

Malinowski – Argonauts of the Western Pacific (Detailed Summary)

Bronisław Malinowski’s Argonauts of the Western Pacific is a landmark in anthropology, offering a vivid account of the Trobriand Islanders of Papua New Guinea. Published in 1922, this work serves as a foundational text for modern ethnographic studies, emphasizing participant observation and meticulous fieldwork. The book broke new ground in the discipline by moving beyond

Marx on Religion – The Opium of Masses

Karl Marx’s views on religion are an integral part of his broader critique of capitalism and social structures. He saw religion as both a reflection of and a response to the social conditions created by economic inequality, particularly under capitalism. In other words, religion is both an expression of alienation and a mechanism that perpetuates

Contradiction

Dialectical Materialism – Karl Marx

Introduction In philosophy the ‘dialectic’ was initially used by Socrates (470-390 BC), Plato (427-397 BC), and Aristotle (384-322 BC) as one of the main tool or method to know & understand the reality. In Plato’s dialogues one can observe that to understand any concept or idea, there is always a rigorous debate or contradictions between

Communication Sociology

Communication Sociology: Impact of Communication on Society

In our daily lives, communication shapes our interactions, influences societal norms, and reflects cultural values. The field of communication sociology focuses on how communication impacts social structures and individual behaviors. The study of communication in sociology focuses on how the exchange of messages – through language, symbols, gestures, and media – shapes and reflects our

Phenomenology

Alfred Schutz – Phenomenology of Social World

Biographical Sketch of Alfred Schutz Alfred Schutz (1899-1959) was a renowned social philosopher. Born and raised in Austria, he found himself compelled to leave Germany in 1939 to escape the oppressive Nazi regime. Schutz pursued his studies in law and social sciences at the University of Vienna. His education was influenced by several renowned scholars.

Durkheim’s Theory of Religion: The Sacred and Profane

Emile Durkheim, one of the founding figures of sociology, made significant contributions to the study of religion through his seminal work, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912). His approach to religion was fundamentally sociological, seeking to understand how religion functioned as a social institution. Durkheim’s focus was on how religious beliefs, symbols, and practices

Giddens on Modernity

Anthony Giddens on Modernity

Introduction Giddens’ concept of modernity is based on the idea that modern society is undergoing a radical transformation that affects all aspects of social life. He argues that modernity is not a fixed or stable condition, but a dynamic and reflexive process that constantly reshapes itself in response to new challenges and opportunities. He also

Durkheim suicide

Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

Introduction The phenomenon of suicide is among the most disconcerting aspects of human existence, often leaving those left behind with more uncertainties than solutions. The motivations behind individuals taking their own lives and the origins of the pressures they confront remain elusive. Emile Durkheim’s study of suicide rates, as discussed in “Suicide: A Study in

Dialectics

What is Dialectic Materialism: Basic Methodology of Marx

Karl Marx is one of the most influential thinkers in the history of sociology, and his concept of dialectic materialism is a central aspect of his political and economic philosophy. Dialectical materialism refers to the theory that human history is shaped by the interaction between the material conditions of society and the ideas, values, and

Contribution of Marx to Economic Sociology

Contribution of Marx to Economic Sociology: Karl Marx (1818–83) was one of the pioneers in Economic Sociology. Marx had been trained in law (and in philosophy), but was self-taught in economics.

Contradiction

Similarities and Differences between the ideas of Marx and Weber

Karl Marx and Max Weber are two of the most influential social theorists of the 19th and 20th centuries. Both Marx and Weber were concerned with the nature of society, and both sought to understand the ways in which social institutions, values, and norms shape human behavior and experience. Despite their many similarities, however, Marx

System Levels - parsons

System Levels Theory – Parsons (Parsonian Social System)

The concept of a system is at the core of any discussion of Parsonian theory (Parsonian Social System). Parsons stated, “The concept of system in the action field as in others, has been central to my thinking from a very early stage.” His general theory of action, in which he gives his overall picture of

Durkheim

Emile Durkheim and the Growth of Functionalism

Durkheim and Functionalism Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) is certainly the most important sociological forerunner of modern functionalism. Comte’s influence on Durkheim and, in turn, Durkheim’s impact on Radcliffe-Brown and Malinowski were of crucial importance to its development. Parsons said that Durkheim was one of his most important intellectual role models. Similarly, Robert Merton states that Durkheim

Functionalism

Functionalism and its Early Roots

What is Functionalism? According to “A Modern Dictionary of Sociology”, functionalism is defined as, The analysis of social and cultural phenomena in terms of the functions they perform in a sociocultural system. In functionalism, society is conceived of as a system of interrelated parts in which no part can be understood in isolation from the

Theories of Social Stratification: A Powerful Tool for Understanding Society

Sociologists and other social theorists use the concept of social stratification to describe inequalities that exist between individuals and groups within human societies. Often, we think of stratification in terms of assets or property, but it can also occur because of other attributes, such as gender, age, religious affiliation or military rank. Individuals and groups

Critical Theory and Frankfurt School

Critical Theory and Frankfurt School: Although all the theorists discussed in this section provide a critique of contemporary society, the term critical theory is also associated specifically with the theorists of the Frankfurt School. The work of the older Frankfurt theorists only became well-known among English-speaking sociologists in the 1960s. However, Jurgen Habermas, the most